Carl Zimmer William McGrew spent much of the 1970s observing chimpanzees in Tanzania. One day the chimps did something odd. As two chimpanzees groomed each other's hair, they each lifted an arm overhead. They clasped hands, forming a kind of primate A-frame. McGrew and his collaborator, Caroline Tutin, had just spent months observing another chimpanzee community just a hundred miles away, and they had never seen that gesture before. But at their new field site, the A-frame handshake turned out to be common. A special chimpanzee handshake may not seem like much of a discovery, but McGrew realized that it could change the way we think about human nature itself. In our own species, handshakes are a sign of culture. Travel the world, and you'll find a dizzying range of handshakes and other forms of greeting, from the military salute to the cheek kiss, to the high five, to the hongi of New Zealand--pressing noses to exchange a sacred breath. These greetings are not hard-wired into our genomes. Each one was invented in a particular place and time, and then spread from one person to another. It's the same process that has given rise to all the cultural variation that makes humans so endlessly interesting, from languages to dances to technology. Biologists long believed that culture is unique to humans, because it depended on qualities that only humans were believed to possess--things like the capacity for language and imitation. Animals simply acted on individual instinct; they couldn't follow trends. And yet McGrew saw what looked like a local chimpanzee custom. © 2007 Forbes.com LLC™

Keyword: Evolution; Language
Link ID: 10674 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By MALCOLM RITTER NEW YORK -- Scientists are casting a wide net to find better treatments for the crushing depression and uncontrolled manias of bipolar disorder, and some approaches they're testing seem pretty surprising. Like skin patches that prevent seasickness. Or a drug that fights Lou Gehrig's disease. And then there's a newly invented device that resembles a hair dryer in a beauty salon. Some of the strategies were identified by logic, and others by pure chance. Scientists already have evidence that they may someday prove useful against bipolar disorder, also called manic-depression. Doctors yearn for better therapies to treat the condition, which can rip careers and marriages apart and drive people to suicide. It is so complex and mysterious that researchers haven't developed a medication specifically for it since lithium, more than half a century ago. Bipolar disorder appears in various forms and degrees of severity in about one in every 25 American adults at some point in their lives, according to a major study published in May. The disorder is characterized in part by episodes of mania, which are periods of boosted energy and restlessness that can run for a week or more. © 2007 The Associated Press

Keyword: Schizophrenia
Link ID: 10673 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Alison Abbott Psychiatrists have welcomed the unveiling by a US drug company of the first new class of schizophrenia drugs since the 1950s. According to early clinical-trial data, the prototype drug — codenamed LY2140023 and produced by Eli Lilly researchers in Indianapolis, Indiana — seems to be as effective as olanzapine, the best currently available drug. The drug's developers hope that it will offer psychiatrists a new alternative for treating their patients, and one that may offer greater benefits in relation to the side effects. According to the World Health Organization, schizophrenia affects around 1% of the population worldwide. Its broad range of debilitating symptoms can include delusions, hallucination, disordered thinking, social withdrawal and emotional 'flatness'. Current anti-schizophrenia drugs all work the same way, by reducing levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain. But they do not control the disease well in all patients and often have unpleasant side effects. The new drug, LY2140023, is converted in the body into a second compound, called LY404023, which acts by damping down the activity of a different neurotransmitter, glutamate. Lilly researchers say that the trial is an important proof of principle that their new approach to the disease works, but they don't yet know if this particular compound will make it into the clinic. "Our study is the first conclusive evidence for a role of glutamate in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia," says James Monn, one of the research team. ©2007 Nature Publishing Group

Keyword: Schizophrenia
Link ID: 10672 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Detailed structural studies have revealed new insights into why the same prion protein can have different properties and be either weakly or strongly infectious. The researchers said their observations in prions that infect yeast are likely to hold true for the sorts of prions that infect humans and animals. A research team led by Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator Jonathan S. Weissman analyzed the structures of two unmodified yeast Sup35 prion proteins in two infectious conformations. They identified key structural differences that explain the different behaviors of these prions. The researchers published their findings online September 2, 2007, in the journal Nature. Weissman and his colleagues are at the University of California, San Francisco. The scientists studied yeast prions, which are similar to mammalian prions in that they act as infectious proteins. In recent years, mammalian prions have gained increasing notoriety for their roles in such fatal brain-destroying human diseases as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and kuru, and in the animal diseases, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (“mad cow” disease) and scrapie. Yeast and mammalian prions are proteins that transmit their unique characteristics via interactions in which an abnormally shaped prion protein influences a normal protein to assume an abnormal shape. In mammalian prion infections, these abnormal shapes trigger protein clumping that can kill brain cells. In yeast cells, the insoluble prion protein is not deadly; it merely alters a cell's metabolism. Prions propagate themselves by division of the insoluble clumps to create “seeds” that can continue to grow by causing aggregation of more proteins. © 2007 Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

Keyword: Prions
Link ID: 10671 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Megan Rauscher NEW YORK (Reuters Health) - It cannot be assumed that an antidepressant has lost its effectiveness if a patient relapses while continuing on the medication, because the medication may never have been effective in the first place, according to study findings reported in the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. In the study, the majority of relapses occurred in patients who had never been true responders, Dr. Mark Zimmerman, director of outpatient psychiatry at Rhode Island Hospital, told Reuters Health. Some patients with major depressive disorder, similar to other medical disorders, respond to placebo, Zimmerman explained. In clinical practice, everyone is given an active drug, so it's not clear if a patient who responds has improve because of the drug or because of "nonspecific" effects, such as the placebo effect. The placebo effect is a sort of "power of suggestion" response in which a patient begins to feel better because he thinks he has received treatment (and doesn't know he has been given a placebo). These responses are usually short-term. Similarly, relapses that occur during a continuation phase of treatment could be because of a true loss of response or they could be because an initial placebo response has worn off. SOURCE: Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, August 2007. © 1996-2007 Scientific American, Inc.

Keyword: Depression
Link ID: 10670 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Megan Rauscher NEW YORK (Reuters Health) - Elderly patients who carry the apolipoprotein E (APOE) e4 allele, a gene mutation implicated in Alzheimer's disease, are at increased risk for experiencing early delirium after surgery, investigators report. They note that postoperative delirium is common in older patients after noncardiac surgery, and it is associated with prolonged hospital stays and increased rates of nursing home placement. Although it is common and may have serious repercussions, no specific cause has been identified, Dr. Jacqueline M. Leung commented to Reuters Health. "Our study results suggest that genetic predisposition plays a role and may interact with anesthetic/surgical factors contributing to the development of early postoperative delirium," she added. Leung, at the University of California, San Francisco, and colleagues conducted a study of 190 patients ages 65 or older who underwent major noncardiac surgery requiring anesthesia. Overall, 15.3 percent developed postoperative delirium on the first or second day after surgery. DNA analysis showed that 46 patients (24.2 percent) carried at least one copy of the APOE e4 allele. "The presence of one copy of the e4 allele was associated with an increased risk of early postoperative delirium," the investigators report in the medical journal Anesthesiology. © 1996-2007 Scientific American, Inc

Keyword: Animal Communication; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 10669 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Robert Wilson, of Rush University Medical Center, gave smell tests to 600 incoming study volunteers aged 54 to 100. (The volunteers were all from the ongoing Rush Memory and Aging Project.) For the next five years, he gave the volunteers a battery of thinking and memory tests. The smell test he used, which can be completed in about five minutes, assesses whether the participants can identify 12 familiar smells such as chocolate, rose and smoke. Each odor is released from the paper in the test booklet by scratching with a pencil, and then placed under the volunteer's nose. Wilson compared volunteers who scored below average (four or more errors) on the smell test with above average scorers (one or no errors). The smell test takes about five minutes. His study, published in the July 2007 issue of Archives of General Psychiatry, found that people with the low scores were 50 percent more likely to develop certain memory and thinking problems, called Mild Cognitive Impairment or MCI. These symptoms are often an early stage of Alzheimer's. Wilson says, "This suggests that problems with smelling even in healthy aging could be a very, very early sign of Alzheimer's disease." This study builds on the work in two previous studies. In the first study, conducted in 2004, researcher Dev Devanand, of Columbia University Medical Center, found a link between low smell test scores and the likelihood of progression from MCI to Alzheimer's disease. © ScienCentral, 2000-2007.

Keyword: Alzheimers; Chemical Senses (Smell & Taste)
Link ID: 10668 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Matt Kaplan There's no news like bad news. The tabloids are full of accidents, gory murders, and mayhem, and people eat it up. But there may be a silver lining, at least for seniors. A new study finds that the human brain reacts less strongly to emotionally negative stimuli as we age, in effect making us more responsive to all things positive and less responsive to the dark and dismal. This bolsters a growing body of evidence showing that aging changes how the brain reacts to emotional stimuli. Much of the media exploits what psychologists call the "negativity bias": our tendency to pay more attention to the bad than to the good. This bias plays a role in a wide range of cognitive areas, making a headline about a murder more attention grabbing than one about a marriage, for example. However, in recent years, research has revealed that as we get older our emotional responses to the world around us become more positive and that the stereotype of the "grumpy old man" may actually be a myth. A number of studies have found that older people typically report a higher sense of well-being than younger people. But is that because the negativity bias declines with age, or does the brain become more responsive to positive stimuli? To explore this question, psychologists Michael Kisley of the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, and Stacey Wood of Scripps College in Claremont, California, presented 51 participants with images of puppies, car crashes, toasters, and other things for 1 second at a time. The participants, who ranged from 18 to 81 years of age, were attached to electroencephalograph electrodes and then pressed buttons to categorize the images as emotionally positive, negative, or neutral. © 2007 American Association for the Advancement of Science

Keyword: Emotions; Development of the Brain
Link ID: 10667 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By GINA KOLATA Americans have been getting fatter for years, and with the increase in waistlines has come a surplus of conventional wisdom. If we could just return to traditional diets, if we just walk for 20 minutes a day, exercise gurus and government officials maintain, America’s excess pounds would slowly but surely melt away. Scientists are less sanguine. Many of the so-called facts about obesity, they say, amount to speculation or oversimplification of the medical evidence. Diet and exercise do matter, they now know, but these environmental influences alone do not determine an individual’s weight. Body composition also is dictated by DNA and monitored by the brain. Bypassing these physical systems is not just a matter of willpower. More than 66 percent of Americans are overweight or obese, according to the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, in Atlanta. Although the number of obese women in the United States appears to be holding steady at 33 percent, for most Americans the risk is growing. The nation’s poor diet has long been the scapegoat. There have been proposals to put warning labels on sodas like those on cigarettes. There are calls to ban junk foods from schools. New York and other cities now require restaurants to disclose calorie information on their menus. But the notion that Americans ever ate well is suspect. In 1966, when Americans were still comparatively thin, more than two billion hamburgers already had been sold in McDonald’s restaurants, noted Dr. Barry Glassner, a sociology professor at the University of Southern California. The recent rise in obesity may have more to do with our increasingly sedentary lifestyles than with the quality of our diets. Copyright 2007 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Obesity
Link ID: 10666 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Google "obesity virus" and you will quickly find a small company called Obetech LLC. Its web address is "obesityvirus.com." Retired professor Richard Atkinson started the company after his lab at the University of Wisconsin discovered the virus, called "Ad-36," in chickens. Atkinson and Nikhil Dhurandhar, who is now at the Pennington Biomedical Research Center at Louisiana State University, filed patents for the test in 1998 after finding that when they infected animals with the virus they gained much more fat than uninfected animals. "The University (of Wisconsin) decided that they didn't think there was anything here, so they did not want to pay for the patents," Atkinson says. "I thought this was important, so I paid for the patents." Dhurandhar is listed as co-discoverer, he says, but he bought out Dhurandhar's share. "At this point, we're the only people who legally can do it," he says of his company. The $450 blood test is a mail-in kit that takes two weeks to process. Atkinson says it's expensive because it's time and labor-intensive, and that the company is working to develop a cheaper test. He thinks finding out if they are positive for the virus could make obese people feel better about themselves, and warn lean people to seek treatment. Other obesity experts disagree. "I see very little rationale for people rushing to be tested to find out if they carry this virus or not," says Randy Seeley, associate director of the University of Cincinnati's Obesity Research Center. "The problem is two-fold: One is, the virus itself is not entirely prevalent; that is to say there are lots of obese individuals who currently aren't testing positive for the virus. Second, what do we do if you do test positive?" © ScienCentral, 2000-2007.

Keyword: Obesity
Link ID: 10665 - Posted: 06.24.2010

The Canadian Press Women who undergo hypnosis just before breast cancer surgery need less anesthetic, and experience lower levels of pain and other side-effects following the surgery, a study suggests. Patients who had a hypnosis session with a psychologist an hour before surgery spent less time in the operating room – about 11 minutes, on average – resulting in significant cost savings, mainly due to reduced operating time, the research shows. "Breast cancer patients are a population in need," lead author Guy Montgomery, a clinical psychologist at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine, said Tuesday from New York. "They're going through a lot both from a psychological perspective as well as a physical perspective from the surgery itself." Patients who underwent hypnosis at discharge had less pain intensity, nausea, fatigue and discomfort, and were less emotionally upset about the whole experience, Montgomery said of those who were hypnotized. To conduct the study, published online Tuesday in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 200 women scheduled for surgical breast biopsy or lumpectomy were randomly assigned to have either a 15-minute session of hypnosis or a short period of empathetic listening with a psychologist. © CBC 2007

Keyword: Pain & Touch; Attention
Link ID: 10664 - Posted: 06.24.2010

People who stop taking their cholesterol-lowering drugs after a stroke are at much greater risk of death, research suggests. The small-scale study from Spain found the chances of dying, or requiring full-time care were nearly five times higher if statins were interrupted. The article, in the journal Neurology, advises doctors to continue giving the drugs to stroke patients. But experts called for bigger studies before recommendations be made. A UK stroke consultant pointed out that almost a third of stroke patients would find it too hard to swallow the pills. The news follows a British Medical Journal report that found the UK lags behind the rest of western Europe in terms of stroke care. Strokes are the third most common cause of death in the UK, accounting for more than 60,000 deaths a year. A National Audit Office report in 2005 suggested that 550 deaths could be avoided, and an extra 1,700 patients make a full recovery if care was better organised. Many people at high risk of stroke will be at higher risk of heart disease, and may be taking statins as a result. There is already some evidence that people taking statins at the time they have a stroke have a less damaging stroke, potentially because of improved blood vessel function and blood flow. (C)BBC

Keyword: Stroke
Link ID: 10663 - Posted: 08.30.2007

By BENEDICT CAREY It’s a fundamental fact of animal and human life, but researchers still do not know for sure why sleep is necessary. Theories abound: Perhaps the body repairs damaged, worn tissues when asleep. Maybe it recharges itself, as if it were a biological battery. Or perhaps sleep affords the brain the opportunity to integrate important facts, memories and emotional impressions recorded from the previous day. The answer is probably all of the above, but the researchers increasingly are focused on the role sleep plays in stabilizing and consolidating memories. Recent studies appear to catch the process of memory integration in action, and they hint at a neural nightlife that is richer than previously known. The sleeping brain not only sorts important facts from trivia, the findings suggest, but it also replays social interactions and carefully shades experiences with emotional color so they will be more comprehensible. That’s why interruptions to normal sleep can be so insidious. More than 50 million Americans suffer some sleep problem, from mundane nagging insomnia to more exotic disorders, like bruxism, the official name for teeth grinding, restless leg syndrome or narcolepsy. Of these, a disorder called obstructive sleep apnea causes perhaps the most misery: during the night, the upper airway narrows so much that the body jerks awake, continually gasping for breath. Each interruption of sleep breaks the spell of “nature’s soft nurse,” in Shakespeare’s phrase. No one who has slept poorly for a week or more is surprised to hear that sleeping problems are linked to physical problems, like high blood pressure, and emotional trouble, especially depression. Copyright 2007 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Sleep
Link ID: 10662 - Posted: 06.24.2010

by Joe Palca All Things Considered, · Scientists in California have been studying a group of people with a remarkable musical talent. It's called absolute pitch, also known as perfect pitch. People with absolute pitch can instantly identify any musical note. The California researchers have been identifying people with this skill in order to understand its genetic basis. Most people can identify a note on a piano, but there will be some people who hear a note, and without even thinking about it, they will know that it was A above middle C — at least if the piano is properly tuned. Dennis Drayna is a geneticist at the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. He says people with absolute pitch can identify notes on a piano the same way most of us can identify colors. "And we can always identify red and it's obvious what's pink, and we usually don't confuse the two," Drayna says. "People with absolute pitch have an analogous ability for their ear." To find people with this talent, geneticist Jane Gitschier turned to the Internet. She and her colleagues at the University of California, San Francisco created a Web page where people could test their pitch abilities. Copyright 2007 NPR

Keyword: Hearing
Link ID: 10661 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Matt Kaplan Women who have had their ovaries removed and not received extra estrogen have an elevated risk of cognitive impairment or dementia later in life. The finding contrasts with an earlier study of about 7500 older women, which found an increased risk of dementia in women over 65 who took hormone supplements--suggesting that estrogen has a different effect on the brain at different ages. Estrogen's effect on health and brain function has been hotly debated in recent years. In 2004, researchers with the Women's Health Initiative (WHI), who studied hormone replacement therapy after menopause, reported that women age 65 to 79 had an increased risk of dementia if they were taking hormone supplements containing estrogen (ScienceNOW, 27 May 2003). But the study, along with others from WHI that reported harm from hormone therapy, was criticized for its focus on older women. Many scientists wondered whether estrogen supplements would have the same hazardous effects in premenopausal women. A team lead by neurologist Walter Rocca of the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine in Rochester, Minnesota, focused on women who had one or both ovaries removed. They used medical records to identify all those who fit this description in Olmsted County, Minnesota, who had had one or both ovaries removed between 1950 and 1987, because of a medical condition or to protect against cancer. They interviewed 1489 women who fit this description, and 10%, they found, had developed dementia. In a control group of 1472 women who had intact ovaries, the number was 6.6%. The findings suggest that it’s harmful to have too little estrogen before menopause, and make a strong case for estrogen treatment if ovaries are removed before age 50, say the researchers. The study is published in the 29 August online issue of Neurology. © 2007 American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Keyword: Alzheimers; Hormones & Behavior
Link ID: 10660 - Posted: 06.24.2010

Heidi Ledford Gene expression changes brought on by heavy smoking may persist long after the smoker has kicked the habit, researchers have found. The results could provide a molecular explanation for the continued increased risk of lung cancer and other pulmonary ailments among former smokers. When smokers quit, their bodies gradually begin to undo the damage cigarettes have wrought. But contrary to popular belief, not all of the body's systems make a full recovery. Although the risk of heart disease, for example, eventually returns to that of a nonsmoker, the risk of getting lung cancer and emphysema — a progressive lung condition that leaves sufferers struggling for breath — remains elevated even if the patient hasn't smoked a cigarette in decades. "You are reducing the risk of disease by quitting," says Raj Chari, a cancer biologist at the British Columbia Cancer Research Centre in Vancouver, Canada, "but it isn't going back to zero." Chari and his co-workers assayed gene expression levels in tissue scraped from the airways of four nonsmokers (who had never smoked), eight current smokers, and twelve former smokers who had gone without a cigarette for at least 1 year, and up to 32 years. ©2007 Nature Publishing Group

Keyword: Drug Abuse
Link ID: 10659 - Posted: 06.24.2010

WASHINGTON - Loosen the belt buckle another notch: Obesity rates continued to climb in 31 states last year, and no state showed a decline. Mississippi became the first state to crack the 30 percent barrier for adults considered to be obese. West Virginia and Alabama were just behind, according to the Trust for America’s Health, a research group that focuses on disease prevention. Colorado continued its reign as the leanest state in the nation with an obesity rate projected at 17.6 percent. This year’s report, for the first time, looked at rates of overweight children ages 10 to 17. The District of Columbia had the highest percentage — 22.8 percent. Utah had the lowest — 8.5 percent. Health officials say the latest state rankings provide evidence that the nation has a public health crisis on its hands. Unfortunately, we’re treating it like a mere inconvenience instead of the emergency that it is,” said Dr. James Marks, senior vice president at the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, a philanthropy devoted to improving health care. Officials at the Trust for America’s Health want the government to play a larger role in preventing obesity. People who are overweight are at an increased risk for diabetes, heart problems and other chronic diseases that contribute to greater health care costs. © 2007 MSNBC.com © 2007 Microsoft

Keyword: Obesity
Link ID: 10658 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By Maia Szalavitz Many people think they know what addiction is, but despite non-experts' willingness to opine on its treatment and whether Britney or Lindsay's rehab was tough enough, the term is still a battleground. Is addiction a disease? A moral weakness? A disorder caused by drug or alcohol use, or a compulsive behavior that can also occur in relation to sex, food and maybe even video games? As a former cocaine and heroin addict, these questions have long fascinated me. I want to know why, in three years, I went from being an Ivy League student to a daily IV drug user who weighed 80 pounds. I want to know why I got hooked, when many of my fellow drug users did not. A bill was introduced in Congress this spring to change the name of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) to the National Institute on Diseases of Addiction, and the National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA) to the National Institute on Alcohol Disorders and Health. In a press release introducing the legislation, Sen. Joseph R. Biden Jr. (D-Del.) said, "By changing the way we talk about addiction, we change the way people think about addiction, both of which are critical steps in getting past the social stigma too often associated with the disease." But opinion polls find weak support for the concept of addiction as a disease, despite years of advocacy by such agencies as NIDA and NIAAA and by recovery groups. A 2002 Hart poll found that most people thought alcoholism was about half disease, half weakness; just 9 percent viewed it wholly as a disease. © 2007 The Washington Post Company

Keyword: Drug Abuse
Link ID: 10657 - Posted: 06.24.2010

The days of sexist science teachers and Barbies chirping that "math class is tough!" are over, according to pop culture, but a government program aimed at bringing more women and girls into science, technology, engineering and math fields suggests otherwise. Below are five myths about girls and science that still endure, according to the National Science Foundation's Research on Gender in Science and Engineering program: Myth 1: From the time they start school, most girls are less interested in science than boys are. Reality: In elementary school about as many girls as boys have positive attitudes toward science. A recent study of fourth graders showed that 66 percent of girls and 68 percent of boys reported liking science. But something else starts happening in elementary school. By second grade, when students (both boys and girls) are asked to draw a scientist, most portray a white male in a lab coat. Any woman scientist they draw looks severe and not very happy. The persistence of the stereotypes start to turn girls off, and by eighth grade, boys are twice as interested in STEM (science, technology, engineering, math) careers as girls are. The female attrition continues throughout high school, college and even the work force. Women with STEM higher education degrees are twice as likely to leave a scientific or engineering job as men with comparable STEM degrees. Myth 2: Classroom interventions that work to increase girls' interest in STEM run the risk of turning off the boys. © 2007 LiveScience.com.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 10656 - Posted: 06.24.2010

By CLAUDIA DREIFUS Two years ago, when Malcolm Gladwell published his best-selling “Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking,” readers throughout the world were introduced to the ideas of Gerd Gigerenzer, a German social psychologist. Dr. Gigerenzer, the director of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin, is known in social science circles for his breakthrough studies on the nature of intuitive thinking. Before his research, this was a topic often dismissed as crazed superstition. Dr. Gigerenzer, 59, was able to show how aspects of intuition work and how ordinary people successfully use it in modern life. And now he has written his own book, “Gut Feelings: The Intelligence of the Unconscious,” which he hopes will sell as well as “Blink.” “I liked Gladwell’s book,” Dr. Gigerenzer said during a visit to New York City last month. “He’s popularized the issue, including my research.” Q: O.K., let’s start with basics: what is a gut feeling? A: It’s a judgment that is fast. It comes quickly into a person’s consciousness. The person doesn’t know why they have this feeling. Yet, this is strong enough to make an individual act on it. What a gut instinct is not is a calculation. You do not fully know where it comes from. Copyright 2007 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Emotions; Attention
Link ID: 10655 - Posted: 06.24.2010