Peter Dejong The hallucinogen found in "magic mushrooms" could help treat a variety of psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety and even addiction, researchers say. A new study provides clues on how much of the substance patients could take to get the greatest benefit with the least risk, researchers say. However, use of the substance, called psilocybin, is not without risk. Its side effects include paranoia and delusions. Under the second-highest dose given in the study, patients said they had a "mystical" experience that they felt was significantly personal and spiritual, but few noted any side effects. Participants reported improvements in attitude, mood and behavior that were confirmed by their friends and family. The study was small and much more research is needed to determine exactly how it's working. And even if the drug becomes available for prescription, it should always be given under the supervision of properly trained personnel, the researchers said. "The model of it would never be, 'take two of these and call me in the morning,'" said study researcher Matthew Johnson, an assistant professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Johns Hopkins University. "Someone having an adverse reaction might be so scared they might run across a highway and be hit by a car," he said. "We wouldn't encourage anyone to do these things in a non-supervised context." © 2011 msnbc.com

Keyword: Drug Abuse
Link ID: 15438 - Posted: 06.16.2011

There are potential risks to babies born to women who took antipsychotic drugs in pregnancy, Health Canada says. The department said it is updating safety information on the drug labels to highlight the potential risk of abnormal muscle movements and withdrawal symptoms in newborns whose mothers were treated with the drugs during the third trimester. Babies born to women treated with antipsychotic drugs during the third trimester run the risk of abnormal muscle movements and withdrawal symptoms, Health Canada says.Babies born to women treated with antipsychotic drugs during the third trimester run the risk of abnormal muscle movements and withdrawal symptoms, Health Canada says. Michaela Rehle/Reuters Antipsychotic drugs are used to treat symptoms of psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Health Canada said it has notified Canadian manufacturers of typical and newer antipsychotic drugs to update safety labels. "Women taking an antipsychotic and who are pregnant or thinking of becoming pregnant should talk to their doctor about their treatment," Health Canada advised in a statement Wednesday. "Patients should not stop taking their medication without first speaking to a healthcare practitioner, as abruptly stopping an antipsychotic drug can cause serious adverse events." © CBC 2011

Keyword: Development of the Brain; Schizophrenia
Link ID: 15437 - Posted: 06.16.2011

by Shaoni Bhattacharya THERE is growing evidence that chronic use of the recreational drug ketamine is linked with severe bladder problems. The findings may also have implications for the drug's use as an antidepressant. Used safely as a medical anaesthetic and analgesic for decades, ketamine has also risen in popularity as a recreational drug. The first case of severe bladder problems linked with ketamine use was documented in 2007, but little is known about the extent or cause of the problem. Now a group of surgeons and scientists have raised the alarm in a review calling for more investigation (BJU International, DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2010.10031.x). They highlight effects such as incontinence and bladder shrinkage, as well as damage to the kidneys and ureter in people using ketamine frequently. "It has a major impact on users such that they can be incontinent or have enormous pain," says Dan Wood, a consultant urologist at University College London Hospitals, who led the review. He has seen 20 chronic ketamine users with urinary problems in the last three years and had to remove four patients' bladders. The review suggests that heavy users are more likely to suffer symptoms, and about 20 per cent of people who have taken high doses of ketamine several times a week over months to years have experienced urinary tract problems. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Drug Abuse
Link ID: 15436 - Posted: 06.16.2011

By Laura Sanders The anesthetic ketamine works against depression by quickly boosting levels of a brain compound that has been linked to the condition, a new study in mice shows. The research may lead to highly effective and fast-acting antidepressants that provide relief within hours instead of weeks, scientists report online June 15 in Nature. Traditional antidepressants can be effective but often take weeks or months to improve symptoms. “You can control malignant hypertension within minutes; a bad increase in blood sugar, bad migraines, asthma attacks, within minutes,” says psychiatrist Carlos Zarate of the National Institute of Mental Health in Bethesda, Md. “Yet why in psychiatry should we be satisfied with, ‘Just hang on for a few weeks or a few months, and you’re going to get better?’ That’s not acceptable in my mind.” The new study may point to faster alternatives, Zarate says: “Here is increasing evidence that you can go more directly at the target, and that’s maybe why you get more of a rapid antidepressant effect.” Mice receiving a single injection of ketamine showed fewer signs of depression just half an hour after the shot, and they continued to show multiple signs of reduced depression for a week, researchers at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas found. For example, after one dose of ketamine, mice struggled longer to stay afloat in a beaker of water instead of giving up and sinking. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2011

Keyword: Depression; Drug Abuse
Link ID: 15435 - Posted: 06.16.2011

Daniel Gilbert The London Association for the Prevention of Premature Burial was founded in 1896 to prevent “premature burial generally, and especially amongst the members”1. Because nineteenth-century physicians couldn't always distinguish the nearly dead from the really most sincerely dead, premature burial was a problem. But not a big problem. The odds of being buried alive in 1896 were, like the odds of being buried alive today, very close to zero. Nonetheless, the good citizens of England formed action committees, wrote editorials and promoted legislation that ultimately led to expensive safeguards against “the horrible doom of being buried alive”1. Most of those safeguards — such as the costly requirement that bodies spend time in 'attractive waiting mortuaries' before being buried — are still with us today. The frequency with which modern cadavers use this waiting period to demonstrate that they've been misdiagnosed is approximately never. Premature burial isn't a big problem, but the way we deal with big problems is. When an aeroplane's fuselage rips open mid-flight, or an offshore oil rig explodes, or a nuclear power plant is crippled by a tsunami, we immediately ask what could have been done differently, blame those who didn't do it, then allocate funds and pass legislation to make sure it gets done that way the next time. At first blush, this seems sensible. After all, no one is in favour of aviation accidents, reactor meltdowns or oil spills; so when these things happen, why not do everything we can to make sure they don't happen again? The answer is that because resources are finite, every sensible thing we do is another sensible thing we don't. Alas, research shows that when human beings make decisions, they tend to focus on what they are getting and forget about what we are forgoing. For example, people are more likely to buy an item when they are asked to choose between buying and not buying it than when they are asked to choose between buying the item and keeping their money “for other purchases”. © 2011 Nature Publishing Group,

Keyword: Attention; Learning & Memory
Link ID: 15434 - Posted: 06.16.2011

Erika Check Hayden Two years ago, 13-year-old Alexis Beery developed a cough and a breathing problem so severe that her parents placed a baby monitor in her room just to make sure she would survive the night. Alexis would often cough so hard and so long that she would throw up, and had to take daily injections of adrenaline just to keep breathing. Yet doctors weren't sure what was wrong. In a paper published today in Science Translational Medicine1, researchers led by Richard Gibbs, head of the Baylor College of Medicine Human Genome Sequencing Center in Houston, Texas, describe how they sequenced the genomes of Alexis and her twin brother, Noah, to diagnose the cause of her cough — a discovery that led to a treatment. Today, Alexis is playing soccer and running, and her breathing problem has gone, says Alexis's mother, Retta. "We honestly didn't know if Alexis was going to make it through this," Retta Beery says. "Sequencing has brought her life back." At age 5, the Beery twins had already been diagnosed with a genetic disorder called dopa-responsive dystonia, which causes abnormal movements, and had been taking a medication that was apparently successfully treating the condition. When Alexis developed a worsening cough and breathing problem, the twins' neurologists did not think it was related to her dystonia. © 2011 Nature Publishing Group,

Keyword: Genes & Behavior; Movement Disorders
Link ID: 15433 - Posted: 06.16.2011

Jeremy Laurance "Sexual orientation is not a matter of choice, it is primarily neurobiological at birth." So said Jerome Goldstein, director of the San Francisco Clinical Research Centre, addressing 3,000 neurologists from around the world at the 21st meeting of the European Neurological Society (ENS) in Lisbon last month. In doing so he was attempting to settle a debate that has raged for decades: are gays born or made? It is a puzzle because homosexuality poses a biological conundrum. There is no obvious evolutionary advantage to same-sex relationships. So why are some people attracted to others of the same sex? Sexual attraction provides the drive to reproduction – sex is a means to an end not, in Darwinian terms, an end in itself. From an evolutionary perspective, same-sex relationships should be selected out. Despite this, they are common in the animal kingdom. Birds do it, bees probably do it and fleas may do it, too. Among the many examples are penguins, who have been known to form lifelong same-sex bonds, dolphins and bonobos, which are fully bisexual apes. Various explanations have been advanced for the evolutionary advantage that such relationships might confer. For example, female Laysan albatrosses form same-sex pairs, which are more successful at rearing chicks than single females. Homosexuality may also help social bonding or ease conflict among males where there is a shortage of females. Gay couples will not preserve their own genes but they may help preserve those of the group to which they belong. ©independent.co.uk

Keyword: Sexual Behavior
Link ID: 15432 - Posted: 06.14.2011

by Caroline Williams Octopuses' astonishing mental skills might help us unearth the roots of intelligence – but first we need to understand what makes them so smart BETTY the octopus is curled up in her den, eyes half-closed and clutching a piece of red Lego like a child with a teddy bear. She is, says Kerry Perkins, cephalopod researcher at the Sea Life aquarium in Brighton, UK, much better behaved than some of the octopuses she has worked with. One used to short-circuit a light in its tank by squirting water at it, and would do so whenever the bulb was left on at night. Another made a bid for freedom via the aquarium drainage system, which it seemed to know headed straight out to sea. "Any octopus tank worth its salt has a way of stopping the octopus from escaping," Perkins says as she adds two weights to the lid of Betty's tank. "They love to explore." Aristotle once took this kind of curiosity as a sign that octopuses are stupid - after all, he pointed out, just waving your hands in their direction brings them close enough to catch. We now know that it is just one example of how smart they are. Between them, cephalopods, which also include squids, cuttlefish and nautiluses, can navigate a maze, use tools, mimic other species, learn from each other and solve complex problems. If the latest analyses are to be believed, these skills might show a rudimentary form of consciousness. Cephalopods are the only invertebrates that can boast anything like this kind of mental prowess, and some of their more impressive tricks are shared with only the cleverest vertebrates, such as chimps, dolphins and crows. Yet they evolved along a completely separate path, from snail-like ancestors, and their brains look completely alien to our own (see "A brain apart"). © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Evolution; Intelligence
Link ID: 15431 - Posted: 06.14.2011

By Tina Hesman Saey Bad news for fans of the X-Men: It may take longer to create a new class of mutant superhumans than previous estimates suggested. The first direct measurements of human mutation rates reveal that the speed at which successive generations accumulate single-letter genetic changes is much slower than previously thought. The study, published online June 12 in Nature Genetics, also shows that some individuals mutate faster than others. That means it may be fairly common for people to inherit a disproportionate share of mutations from one parent. Researchers from an international collaboration known as the 1000 Genomes Project deciphered the genetic blueprints of six people from two families — a mother, father and child from each — and counted up the mutations inherited by each child. From there, the team calculated the human mutation rate. “We all mutate,” says study coauthor Philip Awadalla, a population geneticist at the University of Montreal. “And the mutation rate can be extraordinarily variable from individual to individual.” Combined with the results of three similar recent studies, the rate indicates that, on average, about one DNA chemical letter in every 85 million gets mutated per generation through copying mistakes made during sperm and egg production. The new rate means each child inherits somewhere in the neighborhood of 30 to 50 new mutations. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2011

Keyword: Evolution; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 15430 - Posted: 06.14.2011

Daniel Cressey Many people affected by mental illness are facing a bleak future as drug companies abandon research into the area and other funding providers fail to take up the slack, according to a new report. Produced for the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ECNP), the report warns that "research in new treatments for brain disorders is under threat". With current treatments inadequate for many patients, it says, "withdrawal of research resources is a withdrawal of hope for patients and their families"1. A number of formerly big players in neuroscience have all but abandoned the area recently as the pharmaceutical industry has undergone massive restructuring. AstraZeneca and GlaxoSmithKline have both cut research funding and closed down entire teams dedicated to developing drugs for psychiatric disorders. Although some of the problems faced by the field also apply to other sections of the pharmaceutical industry, many are specific to researchers trying to hit targets in the brain. David Nutt and Guy Goodwin, who authored the report following a recent ECNP meeting on the topic, note that it can take much longer to develop medicines for psychiatric disorders than for better-understood conditions such as cancer, and that potential drugs for psychiatric conditions have higher failure rates. These failures sometimes become apparent only late in the development process, making neuroscience an expensive and risky prospect for industry. © 2011 Nature Publishing Group,

Keyword: Depression; Schizophrenia
Link ID: 15429 - Posted: 06.14.2011

By Jennifer Viegas If dad was a playboy, there's a good chance that his sons and daughters will also be promiscuous, suggests a new study that identified a genetic link to such behavior. Moral objections aside, promiscuity can benefit a species because it often results in more progeny with greater genetic diversity. There are clear risks, such as having a higher chance of acquiring a sexually transmitted disease, but the genetic predisposition to play the field appears to be locked into the DNA of socially monogamous species, including humans. "Other research has concluded that sons of promiscuous fathers are two times more likely to cheat than others," lead author Wolfgang Forstmeier told Discovery News, adding that daughters of such fathers and mothers would also be more likely to cheat. Forstmeier, a researcher in the Department of Behavioural Ecology and Evolutionary Genetics at the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, and his colleagues wondered about the genetic connection after conducting studies, such as behavioral surveys, on humans. For this paper, published in the latest Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, they decided to investigate the phenomenon among zebra finches, which are also socially monogamous. "That means a male and a female will hang out together as a couple; they will build nests together and share other forms of bonding," Forstmeier said. "They may also, however, engage in extra-pair mating behavior." © 2011 Discovery Communications, LLC.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 15428 - Posted: 06.14.2011

Analysis by Marianne English Could treating insomnia be as simple as putting on a cap to slow down the brain's metabolism during sleep? One experiment (see abstract 0534 of Nofzinger and Buysse study), presented at the Meeting of the Associated Professional Sleep Societies, supports the idea, suggesting a special plastic cap might be the answer. Participants who received the treatment developed sleeping patterns more akin to individuals without insomnia. But the idea isn't new. In fact, the same team developed the technology three years ago with promising results. But new research determined which doses work best at specific times before and during sleep. The method, called frontal cerebral transfer therapy, was developed after researchers learned that people with insomnia have higher brain metabolism than their well-rested counterparts. In other words, the prefrontal cortex in people with insomnia is hyperactive and keeps them up when the rest of the body slows down before sleep and during non-REM sleep. Cooling the brain lowers metabolism in this area, thus reducing insomnia among most participants. In the latest experiment, the sleep researchers recruited 12 women to receive treatment with the caps. The participants had primary insomnia, meaning their disorders were not caused by mental or physical problems (unlike two-thirds of people with forms of the disorder). © 2011 Discovery Communications, LLC.

Keyword: Sleep
Link ID: 15427 - Posted: 06.14.2011

By JANE E. BRODY Dr. Karen Jaffe, an obstetrician-gynecologist in Cleveland, was only 48 when she learned she had Parkinson’s disease. Four years later, she continues to maintain a full-time medical and surgical practice, even performing ritual circumcisions. “I’m doing everything I can to stay healthy,” she told me in an interview. “My medications and exercises control my tremor, so doing surgery is not a problem.” For patients with Parkinson’s disease, like Dr. Jaffe, there still is no cure. But researchers have begun to make progress in identifying causes of the disease, and a new study promises to help identify better treatments. Until then, many patients are getting by on grit and determination. In speaking recently with several of them, two common threads emerged: an initial unwillingness to believe or reveal the diagnosis, followed by acceptance and a determination to pursue whatever it takes to remain as healthy and functional as possible. In addition to taking medication designed to replace the brain chemical, dopamine, that is diminished in this neurological disease, each person I spoke with is dedicated to regular, often vigorous physical activity that can minimize the disabilities caused by Parkinson’s. One, David Wolf, 51, of Buffalo, has even taken up fencing, saying (in jest, I hope), “There’s nothing like running someone through with a sword to make your day.” Another, Rena Bulkin, 68, of Manhattan, goes to a gym several times a week to do aerobics, stretching and range-of-motion and balance exercises. “If I don’t work out, my symptoms are much worse,” she said. © 2011 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Parkinsons
Link ID: 15426 - Posted: 06.14.2011

By RONI CARYN RABIN Scientists have identified an unexpected factor that may play a significant role in the development of autism: prenatal vitamins. A new study reports that mothers of children with autism and autism spectrum disorders were significantly less likely than mothers of children without autism to have taken prenatal vitamins three months before conception and in the first month of pregnancy. The finding, published in the July issue of the journal Epidemiology, suggests that taking vitamins in this period may help prevent these disorders, reducing the risk by some 40 percent. Researchers recruited children through a California project, the Childhood Autism Risks From Genetics and Environment Study, or Charge, enrolling 288 children with autism and 144 with autism spectrum disorders, and compared them with 278 children who were developing normally. Blood was drawn for genomic analysis, and mothers were asked about their consumption of vitamins before and during pregnancy. In mothers and children with gene variants that affect folate metabolism, not taking prenatal vitamins before conception was associated with an up to sevenfold increase in the risk of autism, the researchers found. Prenatal vitamins are rich in folate. “Taking prenatal vitamin supplements even before conception is a concrete step concerned parents can take,” said Dr. Irva Hertz-Picciotto, the study’s senior author and principal investigator of the Charge study. © 2011 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Autism; Development of the Brain
Link ID: 15425 - Posted: 06.14.2011

By Jennifer Carpenter Science reporter, BBC News For the first time researchers have monitored the brain as it slips into unconsciousness. The new imaging method detects the waxing and waning of electrical activity in the brain moments after an anaesthetic injection is administered. As the patient goes under, different parts of the brain seem to be "talking" to each other, a team told the European Anaesthesiology Congress in Amsterdam. But they caution that more work is needed to understand what is going on. The technique could ultimately help doctors pinpoint damage in the brains of people suffering from stroke and head injury. "Our jaws just hit the ground," said anaesthesiologist Professor Brian Pollard from Manchester Royal Infirmary on seeing the images for the first time. "I can't tell you the words we used as it wouldn't be polite over the phone." Although regions of the brain seem to be communicating as "consciousness fades", Professor Pollard cautions that it is early days and that he and his team from the University of Manchester still have many brain scans to analyse before they can say anything conclusive about what is happening. BBC © 2011

Keyword: Attention; Sleep
Link ID: 15424 - Posted: 06.14.2011

by Ferris Jabr Zebra finches form monogamous lifetime partnerships, but both males and females indulge in extramarital sex. The benefit for the males is clear: the chance to sire more offspring than fidelity would permit. But why would females cheat when that means risking losing their lifetime partners and catching diseases? A new study suggests females are promiscuous simply because they inherit many of the same genes responsible for promiscuous behaviour in males. Wolfgang Forstmeier of the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology in Seewiesen, Germany, and colleagues studied a captive population of more than 1500 zebra finches from five generations. The team recorded the birds' sex lives on videotape. Later, through genetic paternity tests, they determined which ones had the most offspring. Each day in the breeding season, the birds had sex with their partners twice and the females laid one egg, Forstmeier estimates, until each pair had produced a clutch of five or six eggs. Both males and females differed in their promiscuity: some males were "obsessed" with extramarital sex, he says, while others sought it much less; likewise, some females had a far greater tendency than others to cheat on their partners. As expected, the males who cheated a great deal sired the most offspring. But the team also found that more promiscuous males tended to father more promiscuous daughters. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Sexual Behavior; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 15423 - Posted: 06.14.2011

By SANDRA BLAKESLEE In learning to draw or paint, it helps to have a sense of composition, color and originality. And depth perception? Maybe not so much, neuroscientists are now suggesting. Instead, so-called stereo blindness — in which the eyes are out of alignment so the brain cannot fuse the images from each one — may actually be an asset. Looking at the world through one eye at a time automatically “flattens the scene,” said Margaret S. Livingstone, an expert on vision and the brain at Harvard Medical School who helped carry out a study on stereo vision. That appears to give people with stereo blindness a natural advantage in translating the richly three-dimensional world onto a flat two-dimensional canvas, she said. They use monocular depth cues like motion, relative size, shadows and overlapping figures to stimulate a 3-D world. For one experiment in the study, published in the journal Psychological Science, the researchers measured stereoscopic ability in 403 students from two art schools known for an emphasis on representational rendering and in 190 non-art majors at a university with similar tuition. All students donned red and green glasses, the kind used to view 3-D movies, and stared at a background of colored dots that were manipulated by a computer to flicker randomly. Those with stereo vision were able to focus their eyes to see a square floating in front of or behind the computer screen, just as they might see the blade of a sword pop out of a 3-D screen. Those who were stereo blind just saw noise. The artists as a group performed more poorly than the controls. © 2011 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Vision
Link ID: 15422 - Posted: 06.14.2011

By Rachael Rettner Obese people may one day be able to get a vaccine to help them lose weight, a new study in mice suggests. The vaccine is designed to block the appetite-stimulating hormone ghrelin. Mice injected with the vaccine ate less and burned more calories than mice not given the vaccine. If such a vaccine were developed for human use, it would have advantages over current weight-loss drugs, which have side effects and cannot be used over the long term, said study researcher Dr. Mariana Monteiro, an associate professor at the University of Porto in Portugal. For example, the drug Merida was withdrawn from the market last year because of concerns it could increase heart attack and stroke risks. In contrast, the vaccine, appears to be safe so far, and its effects on the mice may last for years, the researchers said. However, other experts argue that while an obesity vaccine sounds appealing, in reality, the body's way of regulating appetite and weight gain is too complex for a vaccine to solve. "I think that an obesity vaccine is pretty far-fetched," said Dr. Pieter Cohen, an assistant professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School and a general internist at Cambridge Health Alliance. "It's extremely unlikely we'll be able to develop a vaccine that will prevent weight gain," Cohen said. © 2011 msnbc.com

Keyword: Obesity; Hormones & Behavior
Link ID: 15421 - Posted: 06.13.2011

By MALCOLM RITTER NEW YORK — The results of the blood test revealed only a risk, but when she saw them, she still threw up. Now she had to find out for sure. So she lay on her back at a doctor's office, praying, comforted by her Christian faith and her mother at her side, while a needle was slipped into her belly. Erin Witkowski of Port Jervis, N.Y., was going to find out if the baby she was carrying had Down syndrome. For years, many women have gone through an experience like hers: a blood or ultrasound test that indicates a heightened risk of the syndrome, followed by a medical procedure to make a firm diagnosis by capturing DNA from the fetus. Usually it's the needle procedure Witkowski had, called amniocentesis, done almost four months or more into the pregnancy. Sometimes it's an earlier test called CVS, or chorionic villus sampling, which collects a bit of tissue from the placenta. Both pose a tiny but real chance for miscarriage, and experts say highly skilled practitioners are not available everywhere. But by this time next year there may be an alternative — one that offers accurate results as early as nine weeks into the pregnancy. Companies are racing to market a more accurate blood test than those available now that could spare many women the need for an amnio or CVS. It would retrieve fetal DNA from the mother's bloodstream. And the answer could come before the pregnancy is obvious to others. For some women, that might mean abortion is a more tenable choice. For others it could be a mixed blessing. Copyright 2011 The Associated Press

Keyword: Development of the Brain; Genes & Behavior
Link ID: 15420 - Posted: 06.13.2011

Sandrine Ceurstemont, video producer If you think you have eagle eyes, the video above may prove you wrong. Something changes over the course of the sequence but can you pick up what it is? You'll probably be surprised by the reveal at the end of the clip and wonder how you missed such an obvious shift. Created by Kevin O'Reagan and his team at Paris Descartes University, the animation is an example of our blindness to certain slow changes. According to the researchers, there are two main factors that determine what we notice in our environment. First, we tend to focus our attention on the most interesting elements of a scene. In this case, the base of the merry-go-round may not be the most attention-grabbing part of the picture. In addition, we are more likely to perceive objects or changes that don't fit with what we expect to see. Once we've made sense of a scene, we look out for the unusual. Previous theories have suggested that we make sense of our environment by creating internal representations of the outside world, which are updated as we take in new important details. But according to O'Reagan, demos like this suggest that we may simply rely on external information. Since the outside world is constantly accessible to us, it would be overkill to constantly modify an internal model. In this video, the intermediate changes don't need to be committed to memory. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Vision; Attention
Link ID: 15419 - Posted: 06.13.2011