by Andy Coghlan Turning the body's brown fat into a furnace fuelled by unwanted flab might provide a new way to lose weight. The main role of brown fat is to burn just enough fuel to keep body temperature constant. This suggests that working out how the body controls the brown fat thermostat could lead to new drugs that order it to burn more energy than usual, gradually consuming stores of the unwanted white fat that leads to obesity. Recent research suggests the thermostat might be a protein called bone morphogenetic protein 8B, or bmp8B. Mice kept at a chilly 5 °C make about 140 times more bmp8B than mice at room temperature. Now, Andrew Whittle of the University of Cambridge and colleagues have confirmed the hunch, using mice unable to make the protein. These mice became obese even when fed a normal diet. They grew even larger when given a high-fat diet. Whittle's team found that mice make bmp8B in a part of the brain called the ventromedial hypothalamus, and inside brown fat itself. The protein seems to work by increasing nerve signals to brown fat from the brain, and by making the fat cells more attentive to the signals so they burn more energy than normal. The researchers discovered that lab-grown brown fat cells could be made to burn more energy than usual by treating them with bmp8B. What's more, mice given extra bmp8B through infusions into the brain lost weight. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Obesity
Link ID: 16782 - Posted: 05.12.2012

By DANIELLE OFRI, M.D. Right after residency, I took a summer job in a family practice in a beach town on Long Island, covering Fridays and weekends for the regular doctors. The setting was quite different from my training in an urban hospital. It was a bit of a culture shock to go from a world of critically ill hospitalized patients to an outpatient suburban setting where most weekend appointments were for sore throats, rashes and sprained ankles. But I quickly became a pro at Lyme disease identification. Danielle Ofri, M.D.Joon Park Danielle Ofri, M.D. One day, a woman in her early 40s came for an appointment. She asked me to prescribe fen-phen, a weight-loss pill that combined the drugs fenfluramine and phentermine and was being heavily marketed at the time. I remember gazing at her from across the desk, thinking that she certainly didn’t look overweight, and asked her why she wanted weight-loss pills. She grasped the skin around her stomach and said ruefully, “I’ve been trying to get rid of these extra pounds after having kids.” I leaned over to see what she was holding in her grip. It looked like a normal amount of stomach to me. Having just spent the past three years taking care of critically ill hospital patients who were dealing with heart attacks, septic shock, pneumonia and bleeding ulcers, I had a hard time seeing a few extra pounds as a medical issue. I was also a little leery of the whole idea of weight-loss pills, which seemed like a Band-Aid approach to what was usually a lifetime pattern of poor eating habits and inactivity. Copyright 2012 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Obesity
Link ID: 16781 - Posted: 05.12.2012

by Erin Loury As if you needed another reason to despise your alarm clock. A new study suggests that, by disrupting your body's normal rhythms, your buzzing, blaring friend could be making you overweight. The study concerns a phenomenon called "social jetlag." That's the extent to which our natural sleep patterns are out of synch with our school or work schedules. Take the weekends: many of us wake up hours later than we do during the week, only to resume our early schedules come Monday morning. It's enough to make your body feel like it's spending the weekend in one time zone and the week in another. But is social jetlag actually bad for your health? To investigate, chronobiologist Till Roenneberg at the University of Munich in Germany and colleagues compiled data from tens of thousands of responses to an internet survey on sleep patterns and other behaviors. Previous work with such data has already yielded some clues. "We have shown that if you live against your body clock, you're more likely to smoke, to drink alcohol, and drink far more coffee," says Roenneberg. In the new study, the team measured the social jetlag of people ages 16 to 65 by calculating how offset sleep times were on workdays and non-workdays. They then constructed a mathematical model that gauged how well biological factors, such as age, gender, sleep duration, and social jet lag could predict body weight. They found that the first three factors were important predictors of body weight for all people. In addition, for people who are already on the heavy side, greater social jet lag corresponded to greater body weight. However, social jet lag was not a good predictor for people with normal body weights, the team reports online today in Current Biology. © 2010 American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Keyword: Biological Rhythms; Obesity
Link ID: 16780 - Posted: 05.12.2012

By Rebecca Cheung The settings for a person’s biological clock might provide clues to when, during the day, he or she will be more active. What’s more, these same settings could be linked to what time of day a person might die, a new study finds. Understanding the biological basis of these built-in, or circadian, clocks “could lead to products that eventually allow us to shift the clock forwards or backwards,” says Philip De Jager, a neurologist with Harvard Medical School in Boston. He and his colleagues describe their work online April 26 in Annals of Neurology. Being able to alter these clocks could prove useful for shift workers, such as pilots, who might face trouble working against their intrinsic daily rhythms, De Jager adds. And patients can be better cared for if doctors know what times of day are most critical. Previously, scientists have shown that many genes are involved in regulating people’s inherent daily wake and sleep patterns. Disruptions to this natural circadian rhythm are often linked to serious health conditions, including diabetes. In the new work, De Jager’s team took a close look at common subtle tweaks that occur in a circadian clock-regulating gene called PER1. By mostly focusing on DNA samples collected from a group of 537 older adults of European ancestry, the team found that there were three different variations of PER1. The researchers also found these variations in another smaller group of 38 people between 18 and 72 years old. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2012

Keyword: Biological Rhythms; Sleep
Link ID: 16779 - Posted: 05.12.2012

By Allen Frances* When the third edition of psychiatry’s manual of mental illness, the DSM-III, was published 30 years ago, there was great optimism it would soon be the willing victim of its own success, achieving a kind of planned obsolescence. Surely, the combining of a reasonably reliable system of descriptive diagnosis with the revolutionary new tools of neuroscience would quickly yield a deep and broad understanding of psychopathology. And just as surely this would translate into standardized biological tests that would replace the cookbook listing of subjective symptoms and subjectively evaluated behaviors that comprised the DSM-III criteria sets. Sadly, progress has been much slower than anyone expected, with many exciting findings turning out to be no more than dead ends. The vast research funding has indeed provided a basic science revolution, but so far its discoveries have had no impact whatever on clinical diagnosis. Even the most promising candidates—biological tests for the accurate diagnosis of dementia—are several years away. And, for the rest of psychiatry, there is no immediate prospect that our rich basic science knowledge base and powerful investigative tools will contribute to clinical practice any time soon. We have learned a great deal in the past 30 years, but perhaps the most important lesson is that the brain is ineluctably complex and reveals its secrets only slowly and in very small packages. There has been no low hanging fruit. The expectation that there would be simple gene or neurotransmitter or circuitry explanations for schizophrenia or bipolar or obsessive-compulsive disorder has turned out to be naïve and illusory. © 2012 Scientific American

Keyword: Depression; Schizophrenia
Link ID: 16778 - Posted: 05.12.2012

by Michael Balter Three years ago, a stone-throwing chimpanzee named Santino jolted the research community by providing some of the strongest evidence yet that nonhumans could plan ahead. Santino, a resident of the Furuvik Zoo in Gävle, Sweden, calmly gathered stones in the mornings and put them into neat piles, apparently saving them to hurl at visitors when the zoo opened as part of angry and aggressive "dominance displays." But some researchers were skeptical that Santino really was planning for a future emotional outburst. Perhaps he was just repeating previously learned responses to the zoo visitors, via a cognitively simpler process called associative learning. And it is normal behavior for dominant male chimps to throw things at visitors, such as sticks, branches, rocks, and even feces. Now Santino is back in the scientific literature, the subject of new claims that he has begun to conceal the stones so he can get a closer aim at his targets—further evidence that he is thinking ahead like humans do. The debate over Santino is part of a larger controversy over whether some humanlike animal behaviors might have simpler explanations. For example, Sara Shettleworth, a psychologist at the University of Toronto in Canada, argued in a widely cited 2010 article entitled, "Clever animals and killjoy explanations in comparative psychology," that the zookeepers and researchers who observed Santino's stone-throwing over the course of a decade had not seen him gathering the stones, and thus could not know why he originally starting doing so. Santino, Shettleworth and some others argued, might have had some other reasons for caching the stones, and the stone throwing might have been an afterthought. © 2010 American Association for the Advancement of Science

Keyword: Evolution; Attention
Link ID: 16777 - Posted: 05.10.2012

By Laura Sanders A mysterious kind of nerve cell that has been linked to empathy, self-awareness, and even consciousness resides in Old World monkeys. The finding, published May 10 in Neuron, extends the domain of the neurons beyond humans, great apes and other large-brained creatures and will now allow scientists to study the habits of a neuron that may be key to human self-awareness. “People have been reluctant to say, but want to believe, that these neurons might be the neural correlate of consciousness,” says neuroscientist and psychiatrist Hugo Critchley of the University of Sussex in England. Finding the neurons in macaques, which can be studied in laboratories, “opens up the possibility to study directly the role of these cells,” he says. An earlier study saw no signs of the cells, called von Economo neurons, in macaques. But while carefully scrutinizing a small piece of a macaque brain for a different experiment, anatomist Henry Evrard of the Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics in Tübingen, Germany, stumbled across the rare, distinctive cells. About three times bigger than other nerve cells, von Economo neurons have long, fat bodies and tufts of message-receiving dendrites at each end. Evrard compares the first sighting to seeing the tip of an iceberg. After many additional tests, he and his colleagues concluded that the cells, though smaller and sparser than their human counterparts, were indeed the elusive von Economo neurons. © Society for Science & the Public 2000 - 2012

Keyword: Consciousness
Link ID: 16776 - Posted: 05.10.2012

Sandrine Ceurstemont, editor, New Scientist TV Imagine being able to zoom into a human brain in extreme detail as you would navigate through Google Earth. This summer, a digital brain atlas being developed by neuroanatomist Jacopo Annese and his team from University of California, San Diego, will be available online, allowing people to interact with the brain's anatomy down to the level of the cell. The digital display is being created from slices of the brain of Henry Gustav Molaison, who lost his ability to form new long-term memories after a brain operation to treat epilepsy. By working with his brain, the team are building a 3D model in much higher resolution than is possible from MRI scans. To prepare a brain for dissection, it is first preserved in a process that takes months and then frozen. Next it is placed in a motorised tissue slicer specially built by Annese and his team to accommodate an organ as big as the brain (see video). A blade peels away layers about as thick as a human hair, which look like super-thin slices of prosciutto. They are collected with a paintbrush and placed in a salty solution. The sections are then laid out on glass slides so that they can be stained once dry. The purple dye used in the video stains genetic material in each cell, making fine anatomical structures visible. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Brain imaging
Link ID: 16775 - Posted: 05.10.2012

By NICHOLAS BAKALAR A new study has found that consumption of omega-3 fatty acids, plentiful in fish and nuts, is associated with lower blood levels of beta-amyloid protein. Amyloid plaques and tangles in the brain are characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease and are known to increase the risk for mental decline; blood levels of the protein may reflect levels of its deposits in the brain. Researchers studied 1,219 mentally healthy people over 65, recording their diet over one and a half years and testing their blood for beta-amyloid and for vitamins and other nutrients. The study appeared online last week in Neurology. None of the nutrients was associated with reduced beta-amyloid levels except for omega-3 fatty acid. After controlling for age, education, ethnicity, alcohol intake and apolipoprotein E genotype (a genetic marker for dementia risk), the scientists found that higher levels of omega-3 intake were associated with significantly lower beta-amyloid blood levels. The subjects got their omega-3 mainly from fish, poultry, margarine and nuts, but Dr. Nikolaos Scarmeas, the senior author, was unwilling to offer diet advice. “The aim of this study is to try and confirm or disprove mechanisms by which omega-3 may affect brain function,” he said. “But it is not intended to derive public health recommendations.” Dr. Scarmeas is an associate professor of clinical neurology at Columbia University. Copyright 2012 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Alzheimers
Link ID: 16774 - Posted: 05.10.2012

A simple drawing test may help predict the risk of older men dying after a first stroke, a study in the journal BMJ Open suggests. Taken while healthy, the test involves drawing lines between numbers in ascending order as fast as possible. Men who scored in the bottom third were about three times as likely to die after a stroke compared with those who were in the highest third. The study looked at 1,000 men between the ages of 67 and 75 over 14 years. Of the 155 men who had a stroke, 22 died within a month and more than half within an average of two- and-a-half years. The researchers think that tests are able to pick up hidden damage to brain blood vessels when there are no other obvious signs or symptoms. Dr Clare Walton, from the Stroke Association, said: "This is an interesting study because it suggests there may be early changes in the brain that puts someone at a greater risk of having a fatal stroke. "This is a small study and the causes of poor ability on the drawing task is not known. Although much more research is needed, this task has the potential to screen for those most at risk of a severe or fatal stroke before it occurs so that they can benefit from preventative treatments." BBC © 2012

Keyword: Stroke
Link ID: 16773 - Posted: 05.10.2012

By Consumer Reports, Millions of Americans might be overusing sleeping pills, which can pose health risks, a recent analysis by Consumer Reports Best Buy Drugs noted. Medication for insomnia can lead to side effects, dependency and even worse sleep problems when taken too often or in excessive doses. If you need help for short-term insomnia caused by travel or a stressful event, start with an over-the-counter sleep aid. If that doesn’t work, ask your doctor if you should try generic zolpidem. But everyone — especially those with chronic insomnia and people 55 or older — should first try these nondrug approaches: Lifestyle changes. Behavior modification — such as changing sleep habits by getting up at the same time every day and avoiding naps — produced significant improvements for older adults with chronic insomnia, according to a 2011 study published in the Archives of Internal Medicine. Cognitive-behavioral therapy. Seeing a therapist who specializes in insomnia might help 70 to 80 percent of people with chronic insomnia, often providing a “cure.” (Pills treat the symptoms.) To find a sleep center where CBT is offered, call the American Academy of Sleep Medicine at 630-737-9700 or go to www.sleepcenters.org. Ask your insurer about coverage. Exercise. A study of more than 3,000 adults, published in December in the journal Mental Health and Physical Activity, found that 150 minutes a week of moderate exercise, such as brisk walking, or 75 minutes a week of vigorous activity, such as running, improved sleep quality by as much as 65 percent. © 1996-2012 The Washington Post

Keyword: Sleep
Link ID: 16772 - Posted: 05.10.2012

By Lauran Neergaard WASHINGTON—The obesity epidemic may be slowing, but don't take in those pants yet. Today, just over a third of U.S. adults are obese. By 2030, 42 percent will be, says a forecast released Monday. That's not nearly as many as experts had predicted before the once-rapid rises in obesity rates began leveling off. But the new forecast suggests even small continuing increases will add up. "We still have a very serious problem," said obesity specialist Dr. William Dietz of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Worse, the already obese are getting fatter. Severe obesity will double by 2030, when 11 percent of adults will be nearly 100 pounds overweight, or more, concluded the research led by Duke University. That could be an ominous consequence of childhood obesity. Half of severely obese adults were obese as children, and they put on more pounds as they grew up, said CDC's Dietz. While being overweight increases anyone's risk of diabetes, heart disease and a host of other ailments, the severely obese are most at risk -- and the most expensive to treat. Already, conservative estimates suggest obesity-related problems account for at least 9 percent of the nation's yearly health spending, or $150 billion a year. © Copyright 2012 Associated Press

Keyword: Obesity
Link ID: 16771 - Posted: 05.09.2012

By BENEDICT CAREY In a rare step, doctors on a panel revising psychiatry’s influential diagnostic manual have backed away from two controversial proposals that would have expanded the number of people identified as having psychotic or depressive disorders. The doctors dropped two diagnoses that they ultimately concluded were not supported by the evidence: “attenuated psychosis syndrome,” proposed to identify people at risk of developing psychosis, and “mixed anxiety depressive disorder,” a hybrid of the two mood problems. They also tweaked their proposed definition of depression to allay fears that the normal sadness people experience after the loss of a loved one, a job or a marriage would not be mistaken for a mental disorder. But the panel, appointed by the American Psychiatric Association to complete the fifth edition of its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or D.S.M., did not retreat from another widely criticized proposal, to streamline the definition of autism. Predictions by some experts that the new definition will sharply reduce the number of people given a diagnosis are off base, panel members said, citing evidence from a newly completed study. Both the study and the newly announced reversals are being debated this week at the psychiatric association’s annual meeting in Philadelphia, where dozens of sessions were devoted to the D.S.M., the standard reference for mental disorders, which drives research, treatment and insurance decisions. © 2012 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Depression; Schizophrenia
Link ID: 16770 - Posted: 05.09.2012

By Ferris Jabr* In the offices of psychiatrists and psychologists across the country you can find a rather hefty tome called the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM). The current edition of the DSM, the DSM-IV, is something like a field guide to mental disorders: the book pairs each illness with a checklist of symptoms, just as a naturalist’s guide describes the distinctive physical features of different birds. These lists of symptoms, known as diagnostic criteria, help psychiatrists choose a disorder that most closely matches what they observe in their patients. Every few decades, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) revises the diagnostic criteria and publishes a brand new version of the DSM. The idea is to make the criteria more accurate, drawing on what psychologists and psychiatrists have learned about mental illness since the manual’s last update. In May 2013, the APA plans to publish the fifth and newest edition of the DSM, which it has been preparing for more than 11 years. On its DSM-5 Development website, the APA states that the motivation for the ongoing revisions was an agreement to “expand the scientific basis for psychiatric diagnosis and classification.” The website further states that “over the past two decades, there has been a wealth of new information in neurology, genetics and the behavioral sciences that dramatically expands our understanding of mental illness.” © 2012 Scientific American

Keyword: Schizophrenia; Depression
Link ID: 16769 - Posted: 05.09.2012

Older obese men could shift excess weight by taking testosterone supplements, suggest findings announced at the European Congress on Obesity. In a study, hormone-deficient men were given testosterone supplements in a similar way to HRT for older women. Men lost an average of 16kg over five years when testosterone levels were increased back to normal. But experts warn that supplements may not be the answer due to possible risks of prostate cancer and heart disease. Prof Richard Sharpe from the University of Edinburgh Centre for Reproductive Health said: "The notion that this is a quick fix for obese older men is, as always, simplistic. It is far more sensible and safer for men to reduce their food intake, reduce their obesity, which will then elevate their own testosterone." The findings announced at the conference also suggest that raising testosterone levels could reduce waist circumference and blood pressure. Dr Farid Saad, lead author of the study said: "We came across this by accident. These men were being given testosterone for a hormone deficiency - they had a range of problems - erectile dysfunction, fatigue and lack of energy. BBC © 2012

Keyword: Obesity; Hormones & Behavior
Link ID: 16768 - Posted: 05.09.2012

By Brian Fung We often like to think of our brains as a single device, the unitary executive governing the republic of our limbs and thoughts. While there's some truth to that, the reality is much more complex. In fact, not only do different parts of the brain perform different functions, but many of our basic activities -- such as quoting a song lyric or calculating a waiter's tip -- actually activate multiple regions of the brain that fire in perfect coordination with one another. When these otherwise independent parts of the brain work together, they operate in what's called a brain network: Large scale brain network research suggests that cognitive functioning is the result of interactions or communication between different brain systems distributed throughout the brain. That is, when performing a particular task, just one isolated brain area is not working alone. Instead, different areas of the brain, often far apart from each other within the geographic space of the brain, are communicating through a fast-paced synchronized set of brain signals. These networks can be considered preferred pathways for sending signals back and forth to perform a specific set of cognitive or motor behaviors. With all that the brain has to process over the course of a day, you might expect the various networks' signals to interfere with one another, much as overloading a cell phone tower might result in a dropped call or two. © 2012 by The Atlantic Monthly Group

Keyword: Attention
Link ID: 16767 - Posted: 05.09.2012

Awake mental replay of past experiences is essential for making informed choices, suggests a study in rats. Without it, the animals’ memory-based decision-making faltered, say scientists funded by the National Institutes of Health. The researchers blocked learning from, and acting on, past experience by selectively suppressing replay — encoded as split-second bursts of neuronal activity in the memory hubs of rats performing a maze task. "It appears to be these ripple-like bursts in electrical activity in the hippocampus that enable us to think about future possibilities based on past experiences and decide what to do," explained Loren Frank, Ph.D., of the University of California, San Francisco. "Similar patterns of hippocampus activity have been detected in humans during similar situations." Frank, Shantanu Jadhav, Ph.D., and colleagues, report on their discovery online in the journal Science, Thursday, May 3, 2012. "These results add to evidence that the brain encodes information not only in the amount of neuronal activity, but that its rhythm and synchronicity also play a crucial role," said Bettina Osborn, Ph.D., of the NIMH Division of Neuroscience and Basic Behavioral Science, which funded the research. Frank and colleagues had discovered in previous studies that the rhythmic ripple-like activity in the hippocampus coincided with awake mental replay of past experiences, which occurs during lulls in the rats' activity. The same signal during sleep is known to help consolidate memories.

Keyword: Learning & Memory
Link ID: 16766 - Posted: 05.08.2012

by Catherine de Lange WHEN I was just a newborn baby, my mother gazed down at me in her hospital bed and did something that was to permanently change the way my brain developed. Something that would make me better at learning, multitasking and solving problems. Eventually, it might even protect my brain against the ravages of old age. Her trick? She started speaking to me in French. At the time, my mother had no idea that her actions would give me a cognitive boost. She is French and my father English, so they simply felt it made sense to raise me and my brothers as bilingual. Yet as I've grown up, a mass of research has emerged to suggest that speaking two languages may have profoundly affected the way I think. Cognitive enhancement is just the start. According to some studies, my memories, values, even my personality, may change depending on which language I happen to be speaking. It is almost as if the bilingual brain houses two separate minds. All of which highlights the fundamental role of language in human thought. "Bilingualism is quite an extraordinary microscope into the human brain," says neuroscientist Laura Ann Petitto of Gallaudet University in Washington DC. The view of bilingualism has not always been this rosy. For many parents like mine, the decision to raise children speaking two languages was controversial. Since at least the 19th century, educators warned that it would confuse the child, making them unable to learn either language properly. At best, they thought the child would become a jack-of-all-trades and master of none. At worst, they suspected it might hinder other aspects of development, resulting in a lower IQ. © Copyright Reed Business Information Ltd.

Keyword: Language; Development of the Brain
Link ID: 16765 - Posted: 05.08.2012

By PERRI KLASS, M.D. Like many other primary care doctors, I sometimes sense the shadow of depression hovering at the edges of the exam room. I am haunted by one mother with severe postnatal depression. Years ago, I took proper care of the baby, but I missed the mother’s distress, as did everyone else. Nowadays it’s increasingly clear that pediatricians, obstetrician-gynecologists and internists must be more alert. Research into postnatal depression in particular has underscored the importance of checking up on parents’ mental health in the first months of a baby’s life. But a parent’s depression, it turns out, can be linked to all kinds of problems, even in the lives of older children. “Depression is an illness that feeds upon itself,” said Dr. William Beardslee, professor of child psychiatry at Harvard Medical School, who has spent his career studying depression in children and developing family interventions. “Very often people who are depressed don’t seek the care they need.” In 2009, the Institute of Medicine and the National Research Council issued a report, “Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children,” that summarized a large and growing body of research on the ways that parental depression can affect how people take care of their children, and how those children fare. Copyright 2012 The New York Times Company

Keyword: Depression; Development of the Brain
Link ID: 16764 - Posted: 05.08.2012

By Rachel Saslow, By the time new parents take their babies home from the hospital, they have been thoroughly drilled on the litany of infant-sleep no-nos: No stomach-sleeping. No loose blankets. No pillows. No soft mattresses. No crib bumpers. The list goes on. Whether parents choose to follow these rules is another matter. When her twins were born in 2008, Amy Cress of Silver Spring dutifully put her babies on their backs to sleep. But at about 6 months of age, her son Nathan rolled onto his stomach during the night. Cress was so relieved that her son was asleep, she left him like that. He preferred sleeping on his stomach from then on. “We used bumpers, too, which is really not allowed,” she says. “We felt like rebels.” It has been 20 years since the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) first recommended that parents place their babies on their backs to sleep for the first year of life to prevent sudden infant death syndrome, or SIDS. The rate of SIDS in the United States has plummeted more than 50 percent since the government launched its “Back to Sleep” campaign in 1994. In 2006, 2,327 infants died from SIDS in the United States. Still, about 25 percent of U.S. babies sleep on their stomachs or sides, according to a national infant sleep position study. (In 1992, before the “Back to Sleep” campaign, that proportion was roughly 85 percent, according to the study.) © 1996-2012 The Washington Post

Keyword: Sleep; Development of the Brain
Link ID: 16763 - Posted: 05.08.2012